Thesis (M.Sc.) - Asian Institute of Technology, 2003

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, School of Environment, Resources and Development

Myanmar and China have a long history of border trade. Women enjoyed relative freedom in informal small-scale border trade activities. By adoption of market liberalization policies in 1988, the govenm1ent of Myanmar opened the border and formalized border trade. This study examines the effects of the State's policies changes on women's small-scale businesses, relationship with the staff personnel, etlmic and national identities, and their status within the household. The study was conducted in Muse (Myanmar-China border town) by interviewing 70 women who had at least two years of experience in small-scale border trade activities. In order to achieve the objective of the research, exploratory research methodology was applied. Women's trade activities in this study are categorized into five: ( 1) Charcoal. (2) Chilli (3) Garlic ( 4) Other agricultural goods and (5) Manufactured goods. During socialist times, when the State emphasis was on national security, only local women performed subsistence trading. Etlmic and national differences were not visible. With the opening of the border trade, women in all commodity groups reaped the benefits from the broader market as well as from the State's loose regulation practices on border trade, thus commercial trading flourish. By strengthening border trade, both etlmic and national identities became more visible. Women, once family's unpaid labours with no prior business experience, came into border trade and as a result income of the household increased substantially, they became economic contributor to the household and as a result, household's gender ideology also changed. They received more assistance from their husbands and other family members with household responsibilities as well as in trade activities. With taking up such dual roles as mothers/daughters and traders, they articulated their increase bargaining power within the household and in wider social networks, as engaging in their businesses built up their confidence but on the other hand, they had lesser leisure time.The State formed Department of Border trade in 1996. With the introduction of a new system of border trade to large-scale traders, small-scale traders started to face controlling movement of goods by the border crossing gate staff. Verbal permission became needed for each business trip with goods which was never the case before. Because of the lack of specific regulation on small-scale border trade, staff personnel at the border, usually makes their own judgments on the flow of goods. The restriction further intensified when the State established a new department (Na Sa Kha). Movement of goods are scrutinized and not permitted, including hand-carried goods. Those who trade in garlic, apple, and manufactured goods suffer more from inspection than those who trade in other items. Thus, the women respondents in this study, made changes and adjustments in traded commodity, trade route, and different ways on how to best continue in their businesses. They however continue to do their businesses in fear of inspection and possible seizure of their goods by the authorities. Thus their businesses become sluggish and often stressful for them. Therefore changes in the State 's regulation practices also constructed two different social categories: 1 crossing gate staff and 2. traders. Although women are developing their identities as independent and autonomous entrepreneurs from their previously dependent housewives status, with their full blown participation in border trade, the study found that with the introduction of official border trade, the informal business space that women's border trade can play is becoming more and more limited. The border trade liberalization has also strengthened national and ethnic identities, which created disparities among women of different ethnic gro ups who use their identities to pursue their own interests.